6). Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Conversely, as the smoke moves away from the room of origin the temperatures will decrease, which causes the smoke to descend within the compartment causing lighter soot to deposit across the entire elevation of wall surfaces. (2013). They also suggested that the level of heat lines on the walls may be traced back from the termination point toward the beginningordinarily they will be lower and lower on the walls as you approach the areas where the greatest heat was generated (Straeter and Crawford 1955). The use of depth of char and relating this depth to duration of burning has fluctuated as to its usefulness in fire investigations since the mid-1950s. Many of the suppression factors would not necessarily develop new patterns that have unique characteristics. Combustion and Flame 132:157159, Pennsylvania (USA), Sugawa O, Kawagoe K, Oka K, Ogahara I (1989) Burning behavior in a poorly ventilated compartment fire ghosting fire. To accomplish this goal, the authors suggested that the area of origin could be identified through the use of damage by both (1) retracing the fires path by the forces bearing on it and (2) retracing or reconstructing the path of the fire by the effects produced. 2003). Fire plumes against wall surfaces have shown to have moderate heat fluxes ranging from 40 to 80kW/m2, while heat fluxes measured in tests with objects immersed in diffusion flames range between 75 and 200kW/m2 Heskestad (1982); (Qian and Saito 1992; Dillon 1998; Lattimer 2008). Both tests resulted in an area of greatest damage directly across the room from the window opening, the opposite side of the room from the true origin. In 1985, Cooke and Ide put forward a process termed radius of error (Cooke and Ide 1985). They are examples only, not models. Heat shadowing and protected areas were shown to assist investigators in determining that the fire did not originate behind certain contents (Shanley et al. Fire pattern was first used to describe how the fire developed or had traveled as described by Kirk, every fire forms a pattern that is determined chiefly by the configuration of the environment and the availability of combustible material (Kirk 1969). bAH$?6 The statistics can be found in Additional file 1 associated with this review paper. Gregory E Gorbett. Straeter and Crawford (1955) text identified that the point of deepest char in the wood is likely to be the point of origin of the fire. The literature appears to identify that fire investigators can take depth measurements of char for similar types of wood to identify relative degrees of fire damage and that this may assist in identifying varying DOFD, but they should not assign duration of exposure to those measurements unless the conditions of the samples can meet those specifically expressed in Babrauskass (2005) work. Cambridge University Press, New York (USA), Lattimer B (2008) Heat Fluxes from Fires to Surfaces. The visible appearance of wallboard has been utilized in all fire pattern studies available, even though only a few studies exist that focus on the baseline characteristics of the varying degree of heating and resulting DOFD (Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012; Hicks et al. A common maximum recorded heat flux in a postflashover compartment fire is 170kW/m2 (NFPA 2014). 2003). Interscience Communications, London (UK), Hopkins R, Gorbett G, Kennedy P (2008) Fire Pattern Persistence Through Post-Flashover Compartment Fires. f&dUCk|Q89Z(` RJ In 2005 and 2008, three studies were completed in conjunction with a training seminar to analyze burn pattern development in post-flashover fires (Carman 2008). heat, soot) begin to influence the materials within the compartment. 80 0 obj <> endobj In this work, the authors outlined a system that described char as being on a range from Number 0 Char up to Number 10 Char, with number 10 char as representing the greatest level of damage. National Institute of Justice, Report 60400, Washington D.C. (USA), Qian C, Saito K (1992) Fire-Induced Flow Along the Vertical Corner Wall. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for PG fire patterns. This has been provided as the reason for a visible area remaining that exhibits heat exposure, which has a sharp leading edge of demarcation widening significantly at the base forming a triangular shape or pattern. (2013) identified hose spray from suppression efforts as washing off areas of soot and ash from the gypsum wallboard, leaving behind a white area. Not all compartment fires will transition through flashover (Drysdale 2011). There were two windows and one door, where one window was closed and the other open for the fire duration, while the door was opened 5min post-ignition. The first identified process was published in 1955 (Straeter and Crawford 1955). National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 822520, Maryland (USA), Stickney (1984) Recognizing Where Arson Exists. (1997)) and Gorbett et al. plastics, wood) will result in either physical or chemical changes. 1997; NFPA 2014; Gorbett et al. 4 Therefore, the visual identification of color changes through the cross-sectioning of wallboard will not be further addressed. There was no significant damage identified around the window ventilation, as the researchers discussed that this vent served primarily as an outflow for the heated gases, while the doorway served as the inflow due to the location of the neutral plane. Several of the early texts described using undamaged areas on the floor or walls to help with reconstruction of contents within the compartment (Kennedy 1959; Kirk 1969). The first discussion on this came in the form of discussing beveling or loss of mass (DeHaan 1983). The characteristics associated with the geometric shapes were in some cases linked to the speed of the fire, such as the angle of the V could be interpreted as the fire being fast or slow. Department of Justice, USA, Riahi S, Beyler C (2011) Measurement and Prediction of Smoke Deposition from a Fire Against a Wall. 1997). Another problem is that the shapes discussed are assuming an idealized fire plume that is shaped as a cone, which is a gross oversimplification. The changes to the wall surfaces by the owner through repairs and other possible information that may change the overall damage within the compartment need to be addressed. (2013) designed a tool based on the previous work of Ngu (2004), which used a force gauge with an attached hex key probe (2mm diameter). Smoke contains particulates, liquid aerosols and gases (NFPA 2014). Only later did the literature express this conical shape as two-dimensional shapes, including triangular shapes, columnar shapes, V-patterns, U-patterns and hourglass-patterns (Barracato 1979; Cooke and Ide 1985; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). products of combustion interacting with adjacent. hbbd``b`$;` X| b tqKwH a:H,b`bdc`$8+@ 1 Babrauskas (2005) lists several unpublished tests of holes through wood floors and provides a summary of these tests. 12). The researchers consequently provide guidance to investigators on how to resolve this situation by saying it is necessary to pay particular attention to low burns and shadow effects on room furnishings (Custer and Wright 1984). 2009). Notice, however, none of these documents came out and directly stated that an investigator could not identify an ignitable liquid from a floor pattern based on observation, they only warned that it cannot always be reliably identified (NFPA 1992). As the fire continues to grow, the pattern becomes . 11). In addition, the ceiling jet velocity is highest near the centerline of the plume and decreases as it moves outward (Heskestad 2008). 1997; NFPA 2014; Gottuk and White 2008). The background section establishes the foundation for the organization of this paper. Carman (2008) divided the room into four quadrants and performed a survey of the attendees in an attempt to derive an error rate study of investigators. location and elevation). Finally, an area that is white in color surrounded by soot areas should not be classified as a clean burn area until closer examination is performed. So you might have to check the size of the breakout candle on higher . The open window was 3ft by 3ft (0.91m0.91m) with a sill of 2ft (0.61m) that was directly across the room from the doorway that was 3ft by 6ft (0.91m1.83m). The ULG patterns are characterized by level lines of demarcation (or lines with similar elevation) with a generally uniform degree of damage (NFPA 2014). In the mid-1980s there began a trend in the literature that spoke out against this misconception and began to provide a list of alternative explanations of damage to the floor (DeHaan 1983; Taylor 1985; Taylor 1986; DeHaan 1987; Eaton 1987; Wood et al. (2013) identified similar effects near ventilation openings in their compartment fire tests. ceiling). 2008; Mann and Putaansuu 2009). A U-shape could indicate that there was a "pool of origin" rather than a point of origin, such as might be caused by, say, a puddle of gasoline. The final two tests were performed after multiple television sets and electronic appliances were placed on wood stands and on the floor in a burn room containing an upholstered chair and area rugboth of these tests were allowed to progress into full-room involvement and were not extinguished until 4min past flashover (Hoffmann et al. Heat and flame vector analysis was used as a process within these studies to document the direction of fire travel, location and magnitude of fire patterns, as well as a process of confirming the area of origin. In 1997, a formal heat and flame vector analysis was conducted with three of the USFA fire pattern tests. (1997) noted that the effect of ventilation was the one factor least understood and that ventilation-generated patterns were identified to be of great magnitude, sometimes greater than that of the patterns caused by the plume or origin. identifiable and related lines of demarcation it is important that the lines of demarcation are objectively verifiable by all experts and that a pattern is something that can be objectively identified without interpretation. Examples of Fire Patterns: "Inverted Cone". variables: the material itself, the RHR, fire suppression activities, temperature of the heat source, ventilation, and the length of time of exposure. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for ULG fire patterns. Interscience Communications, London (UK), Houck M, Siegel J (2006) Fundamentals of Forensic Science. Forty-eight tests were conducted with a standardized ANSI/UL wood crib and ten additional tests were conducted with commercially available polyurethane foam recliners. Another series of full-scale fire tests was conducted with funding provided by the National Institute of Justice (Putorti 1997). Fire investigation (origin and cause determination) is an integral part of the total fire safety model, including fire prevention and protection for a community. The varying damage was given many terms by fire investigators and is reflected within the literature, including: fire patterns, burn patterns, indicators, burn indicators, fire fingerprints, fire transfer patterns and a variety of geometric shapes. Only one article was identified related to the use of visible char appearance in identifying varying DOFD where quantitative measures were attempted (Keith and Smith 1984). (0.787m2.032m) and was opened to the exterior for the entire duration of the test. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 64(3):1625, Clemen R, Reilly T (2001) Making Hard Decisions. There are four logical components to the literature review presented: The first part of the review describes the work completed for establishing a degree of fire damage assessment for commonly encountered materials in structure fires. They further confirmed the NFPA 921s and Mann and Putaansuus progressive visible damage to the surface of the gypsum wallboard. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. burning fuel package is located at or very near the vertical witness surface, then the resulting fire pattern is shaped as a "V", evident by its angulated lines of demarcation. Privacy 2003). The damage cues evaluated for plume-generated damage included: Cue 1-loss of mass to fuel is consistent with damage to affected surface. This causes the plume to widen horizontally in the upper layer causing damage to the intersecting surfaces. [3], This U-shaped curve is different from the other types of skill development because this skill has an artistic rating with it, which means there could be differences in opinion, but in studies where children, adult artists, and non-artist adults were all given the same directions to draw a self portrait, the children's and the artists' were the closest of the three to depicting the face when picked by an outside group. The next identified process was promulgated by John Kennedy in 1962 and was termed the Pointer or Arrow Theory (Kennedy 1959). Most recent studies consider taking the actual depth of calcination by using an instrument and probing it into the wall a more effective method (Mann and Putaansuu, 2010; Mealy and Gottuk, 2012; Kennedy et al. positive pressure ventilation). In this text, it is stated that as heat marks begin to form at the top of a room as a result of the hot air that rises from the firethese marks get lower and lower on the wall. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Natural Convection in Enclosures, HTD 192:7381, Babrauskas V (1980) Estimating room flashover potential. The burns were intended to be identical to determine if differences would be discovered with a close analysis of the results. A survey was conducted to evaluate the proficiency of professional fire investigators at determining the area of origin when provided with photographs and measurable data from a test (Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. 2003). However, most inverse problems are approached by first establishing direct solutions for well-posed problems. Theobald (1968) performed a series of experiments with target combustible items (wood blocks, cotton cloth and plywood) located at 0.45m and 0.9m above the floor at various lateral distances away from a variety of common residential fuel items burning, such as a kitchen chair, easy chair, arm chair, bookcases and wardrobes. et al. 1997). Two 15ft by 15ft (4.57m4.57m) structures with a ceiling height of 7ft (2.13m) were tested. Often, a saddle burn is caused by a burning liquid on the floor or radiant heat from a material close to the floor. Equally important is to determine whether the radiant heat transfer is sufficient to cause damage to nearby contents or wall surfaces. [1] In this graph the axes would be availability of intuition (being th Y-axis) and level of expertise (being the X-axis), instead of the skill level (being the Y-axis) and time (being the X-axis). Annotated by Robert A. Corry. Characteristics of the damage linked with ventilation-generated patterns during ventilation-controlled conditions are large surface areas of damage, increased magnitude of damage, damage found near unsealed drywall seams and angled lines of demarcation located around the ventilation opening or directly opposite of a door opening. The fire is considered to be under-ventilated at higher values of >1.0. Together these make up the fire triangle. 2013). Carman attributed the failure to the lack of understanding by the investigation profession of the differences between pre- and post-flashover fire behavior and resulting damage. Comparing Delichatsioss (1984) simple correlation of flame height for wall fires to the average damage height identified in Madrzykowskis study shows that the calculated flame height under-predicted the damage height by approximately 711% for the natural gas burner and gasoline fires. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. As explained in this method, the two-dimensional shapes and patterns would be formed by the overall three-dimensional plume as it intersected these surfaces resulting in V-shape and U-shape patterns on walls, contents and vertical structural member and Radial-shaped patterns on the ceiling and horizontal obstructions. Their use of this method was stated to ensure that an investigator would be required to provide an indication of the degree of accuracy, as well as provide an area for excavation. First Asian Conference on Fire Science and Technology, China, Quintiere J (1995) Compartment Fire Modeling. 1997). (2013) also discuss findings related to the visual identification of surface damage progression to gypsum wallboard based on imposed heat fluxes. As shown in the literature search, no system exists and therefore this assumption is unwarranted by previous researchers (Carman 2008; Tinsley and Gorbett 2013; Gorbett et al. Plenary Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. 1997; Gorbett et al. As a result, the observations are typically qualitative in nature. Abib A, Jaluria Y (1992a) Turbulent penetrative and recirculating flow in a compartment fire. The only method that appears to be systematized and examples provided was the truncated cone method in conjunction with the heat and flame vector analysis (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). 2013). 1982; Mealy et al. As this smoke collides with cooler surfaces, it may deposit out of the heated gases onto wall, ceiling and content surfaces. This damage is commonly reported as heat or smoke deposition reported to be found throughout a structure at varying heights on the walls of a room between areas of no damage and smoke or heat damage. Dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Gottuk D, White D (2008) Liquid Fuel Fires. Cue 6-increased area and magnitude of damage around gypsum wallboard seams. The tool used constant force springs to ensure an even, consistent pressure is applied at all times regardless of the user. The skill can also be artistic such as painting or playing a musical instrument, and physical skills such a walking and weight lifting. Cue 4-lines of demarcation are angled emanating from the ventilation opening. The majority of these texts stated that the investigator should consider the damage to be caused by an ignitable liquid if the investigator would visibly observe damage to the floor in the shape of a puddle, have hard-edged burn marks in the shape of a pour, or the damage had the appearance of trailers (i.e. (1997)) reports that a damaged area of great magnitude was identified in the tests done in NISTs Large Fire Research Facility where the ventilation opening to the exterior of the compartment had access to an abundant amount of fresh air. 2005; Morvan et al. The fire investigators observations are simply assessing the varying DOFD. A study conducted in 2012 examined the effect of carpet underlayment/carpet pad on post-flashover fire, floor patterns (Wood et al. A "U" shaped time line is created of the skills development. The three tests were conducted with identical contents and ventilation. One common type of fire pattern is plume-generated patterns, the lines that come from the three-dimensional shape of the fire plume being cut by an interweaving two-dimensional surface, such as a ceiling or wall. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), Ngu C (2004) Calcination of Gypsum Plasterboard under Fire Exposure. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, MATH Paper presented at InterFlam99. Saddle burns display deep charring. It is suggested from this literature review that the overall reasoning process for evaluating fire damage for determining an area of origin consists of the following seven steps (Gorbett 2015): Identifying the value in further analysis of a surface or compartment; Identification of the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents; Identifying clusters and trends of damage (fire patterns); Interpreting the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns; Testing the hypothetical area(s) of origin; and. These tests produced the first published data that supported fire patterns as being useful in fire investigation. These geometric shapes are still currently used within the profession, however, many of the myths associated with their interpretations have fallen into disrepute. NFPA 921 states that there are three basic causes of fire patterns: heat, deposition and consumption (NFPA 2014). fire pattern creation stems from the amount of heat flux on a materials surfaceover the duration of the fire.vi,vii,viii,ix Therefore, the fire plume and the various fluxes generated by it are the primary means of pattern production in the early stages of a fire. This type of damage was first identified as being helpful at determining the area of origin by Straeter and Crawford (1955). Floor patterns were found lacking in many of the fire pattern tests where the compartment transitioned to a fully involved state (Shanley et al. Some of these indicators used were alligatoring, crazing of glass, depth of char, lines of demarcation, sagged furniture springs and spalled concrete. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 6:8991, Crofton, MD, DeHaan J (1983) Kirks Fire Investigation. Aetna Life and Casualty, Connecticut (USA), Battle B, Weston P (1960) Arson: A Handbook of Detection and Investigation. 20). An upholstered sofa and upholstered chair were located in adjacent corners across the room from each other with a coffee table in between. Also, their study noted that similar areas of great magnitude of damage occurred around doors and on walls opposite door openings. No studies have been conducted specifically to evaluate these patterns, however, some characteristics of these patterns have been identified in other fire pattern studies. ( USA ), Houck M, Siegel J ( 2006 ) Fundamentals of Forensic Science develop patterns... 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M, Siegel J ( 1995 ) compartment fire Modeling and content surfaces 822520, Maryland ( ). A saddle burn is caused by a burning liquid on the floor radiant... Flame vector analysis was conducted with commercially available polyurethane foam recliners ( NFPA 2014 ) a postflashover compartment is. Confirmed the NFPA 921s and Mann and Putaansuus progressive visible damage to the intersecting surfaces created of the.! Data that supported fire patterns as being helpful at determining the area of origin by Straeter and Crawford ( )! Pg fire patterns as being useful in fire investigation of gypsum Plasterboard under Exposure..., Babrauskas V ( 1980 ) Estimating room flashover potential cross-sectioning of wallboard will be. Opposite door openings continues to grow, the pattern becomes to check size... 2013 ) identified similar effects near ventilation openings in their compartment fire damage occurred around doors and on opposite. 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